To distinguish more clearly we can take the old Arab fable of the frog and the scorpion, who met one day on the bank of the River Nile, which they both wanted to cross. The frog offered to ferry the scorpion over on his back provided the scorpion promised not to sting him. The scorpion agreed so long as the frog would promise not to drown him. The mutual promises exchanged, they crossed the river. On the far bank the scorpion stung the frog mortally. 'Why did you do that?' Croaked the frog, as it lay dying.

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Replied the scorpion, 'We're both Arabs, aren't we?' If we substitute for a frog a 'Mr. Goodwill' or a 'Mr. Prudence,' and for the scorpion 'Mr. Treachery' or 'Mr.

Two-Face,' and make the river any river and substitute for 'We're both Arabs...' 'We're both men...'

We turn the fable [which illustrates human tendencies by using animals as illustrative examples] into an allegory [a narrative in which each character and action has symbolic meaning]. On the other hand, if we turn the frog into a father and the scorpion into a son (boatman and passenger) and we have the son say 'We're both sons of God, aren't we?' , then we have a parable (if a rather cynical one) about the wickedness of human nature and the sin of parricide. Contrast allegory with,, and, below, or click here to download a contrasting these terms. ALLIOSIS: While presenting a reader with only two alternatives may result in the known as false dichotomy or either/or fallacy, creating a parallel sentence using two alternatives in parallel structure can be an effective device rhetorically and artistically. Alliosis is the rhetorical use of any isocolon parallel sentence that presents two choices to the reader, e.g., 'You can eat well, or you can sleep well.' For more information, see.

ALLITERATION: Repeating a consonant sound in close proximity to others, or beginning several words with the same vowel sound. For instance, the phrase ' buckets of big blue berries' alliterates with the consonant b. Coleridge describes the sacred river Alph in Kubla Khan as ' Five miles meandering with a mazy motion,' which alliterates with the consonant m. The line ' apt alliteration's artful aid' alliterates with the vowel sound a. One of Dryden's couplets in Absalom and Achitophel reads, ' In pious times, ere priestcraft did begin, / Before polygamy was made a sin.' It alliterates with the letter p.

Walt Whitman's 'Song of Myself' employs the technique: ' I lean and loaf at my ea se ob serving a spear of summer gra ss.' Most frequently, the alliteration involves the sounds at the beginning of words in close proximity to each other. Alliteration is an example of a rhetorical. Alliteration in which the first letters of words are the same (as opposed to consonants alliterating in the middles or ends of words) is more specifically called, which is a bit of a misnomer since it doesn't actually involve rhyme in a technical sense. If alliteration also involves changes in the intervening vowels between repeated consonants, the technique is called.

See also and. ALLITERATIVE PROSE: Many texts of Old English and Middle English prose use the same techniques as. 955-1010 CE) and Wulfstan (d.

1023) wrote many treatises using skillful alliteration. The Herefordshire texts known collectively as the 'The Katherine Group' ( Hali Meiohad, Sawles Warde, Seinte Katerine, Seinte Marherete, Seinte Iuliene) are some examples in Middle English.

ALLITERATIVE REVIVAL: The general increase or surge in alliterative poetry composed in the second half of the 14th century in England. Alliteration had been the formalistic focus in Old English poetry, but after 1066 it began to be replaced by the new convention of rhyme, which southern courtly poets were using due to the influence of continental traditions in the Romance languages like Latin and French. Between 1066 and 1300, hardly any poetic manuscripts using the alliterative form survive. There are two theories to explain this absence. Theory number one argues this absence is a quirk of textual history, and that individuals were still writing alliterative verse, but by coincidence none of the manuscripts survive to the modern period, or that the tradition survived in oral form only and was never written down. The second theory suggests that, after alliterative verse had been mostly abandoned, a surge of regionalism or nationalism encouraged northern poets to return to it during the mid- and late-1300s. In either case, during this time, Piers Plowman, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and other important medieval poems were written using alliterative techniques.

See, above, and, below. ALLITERATIVE VERSE: A traditional form of Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse poetry in which each line has at least four stressed syllables, and those stresses fall on syllables in which three or four words alliterate (repeat the same consonant sound). Alliterative verse largely died out in English within a few centuries of the Norman Conquest. The Normans introduced continental conventions of poetry, including and octosyllabic couplets. The last surge of alliterative poetry in the native English tradition is known as the during the Middle English period.

ALLOMORPH: A different pronunciation of a morpheme. For instance, consider the -s plural morpheme. The standard /s/ sound (as in ) becomes a /z/ sound in some allomorphs (such as.) However, the same grapheme is used to represent each sound. ALLOPHONE: A predictable change in the articulation of a phoneme. For example, the letter t in the word top is aspirated, but the letter t in stop is unaspirated.

ALLUSION: A casual reference in literature to a person, place, event, or another passage of literature, often without explicit identification. Allusions can originate in mythology, biblical references, historical events, legends, geography, or earlier literary works. Authors often use allusion to establish a tone, create an implied association, contrast two objects or people, make an unusual juxtaposition of references, or bring the reader into a world of experience outside the limitations of the story itself. Authors assume that the readers will recognize the original sources and relate their meaning to the new context. For instance, if a teacher were to refer to his class as a horde of Mongols, the students will have no idea if they are being praised or vilified unless they know what the Mongol horde was and what activities it participated in historically.

This historical allusion assumes a certain level of education or awareness in the audience, so it should normally be taken as a compliment rather than an insult or an attempt at obscurity. ALOFT, THE: Also called 'the above' and sometimes used interchangeably with 'the Heavens,' this term refers to the gallery on the upper level of the. In Shakespeare's Globe theater, this area contained the lords' rooms, but the center of this location was also used by the actors for short scenes.

On the other hand, in most indoor theaters like the Blackfriars Theater, musicians above the stage would perform in a curtained alcove here. ALPHABET POEM: An poem of thirteen lines in which each line consists of two words, each word beginning with sequential letters in the alphabetic pattern ABCDEF, etc. Deutsche noteas that many poets like Paul West take liberties such as using Greek or Russian letters and introducing -ex compounds. Here is an example from West: Artichokes, Bubbly, Caviar, Dishes Epicures Favor, Gourmets Hail; Ices, Juicy Kickshaws, Luxurious Mousses, Nibblesome Octopus, Pheasant, Quiches, Sweets, Treats Utterly Vanquish Weightwatchers: Xenodochy's Yum-yum! In Deutsche 11) ALPHABETIC: The adjective alphabetic refers to any writing system in which each unit or letter represents a single sound in theory. English writing is theoretically alphabetic--but in actual point of fact is so riddled with exceptions and oddities that it hardly counts--as discussed.

ALPHABETISM: A word formed from the initial letters of other words (or syllables) pronounced with the letters of the alphabet--such as the IRS, CIA, the VP, or VIP. See further discussion under. ALTAIC (from the Altai mountains): A non-Indo-European language family including Turkish, Tungusic, and Mongolian. ALTER EGO: A literary character or narrator who is a thinly disguised representation of the author, poet, or playwright creating a work. Some scholars suggest that J. Alfred Prufrock is an alter ego for T. S.

Eliot in 'The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,' or that the wizard Prospero giving up his magic in The Tempest is an alter ego of Shakespeare saying farewell to the magic of the stage. Contrast with. ALTHING: The closest approximation the Icelandic Vikings had to a government/court system/police--a gathering of representatives from the local to decide on policy, hear complaints, settle disputes, and proclaim incorrigible individuals as (see below).

The thing was a gathering for each local community in Iceland, but the althing was a gathering for the entire island's male population. ALVEOLAR: This adjective refers to any sound made by the tongue's approaching the gum ridge. Examples include the sounds /n/, /l/, /z/ and /s/. ALVEOPALATAL: This adjective refers to any sound made by the tongue's approaching the gum ridge and the hard palate. Examples include the consonant sounds found in the beginning of the words Jill, Chill, and shall and the beginning and ending sounds of the word rouge. AMALGAMATED COMPOUND: A word originally formed from a compound, but whose form is no longer clearly connected to its origin, such as the word not--originally compounded from Anglo-Saxon na-wiht ('no whit'). AMANUENSIS (from Latin, ab manus, 'by hand', plural amanuenses): A servant, slave, secretary, or who takes dictation for an author who speaks aloud.

Many works of literature--especially from Roman and medieval times--result from the labor of such a scribe. For instance, the illiterate Margery Kempe had two friars who served as amanuenses to write down her Book of Margery Kempe. Many Roman poets kept slaves who worked as their personal amanuenses, such as Cicero's slave Tyro, and so on.

AMBAGE (back formation from ambi + agere, 'to drive both ways', pronounced in a manner that loosely rhymes with 'damage'): or designed with an eye toward deceiving or confusing the audience. In the plural, several such instances are ambages. See discussion under. AMBIANCE: Loosely the term is equivalent to atmosphere or mood, but more specifically, ambiance is the atmosphere or mood of a particular setting or location. Ambiance is particularly vital to gothic literature and to the horror story, and to many young college students' dates. AMBIGUITY: In common conversation, ambiguity is a negative term applied to a vague or equivocal expression when precision would be more useful.

Sometimes, however, intentional ambiguity in literature can be a powerful device, leaving something undetermined in order to open up multiple possible meanings. When we refer to literary ambiguity, we refer to any wording, action, or symbol that can be read in divergent ways. As William Empson put it, ambiguity is 'any verbal nuance, however slight, which gives room for alternative reactions to the same piece of language' (qtd. In Deutsch 11). AMELIORATION (from Latin, melior, 'better'): A semantic change in which a word gains increasingly favorable connotation. For instance, the Middle English word knight used to mean 'servant' (as German Knecht still does). The word grew through amelioration to mean 'a servant of the king' and later 'a minor nobleman.'

Similar amelioration affected the Anglo-Saxon word eorl, which becomes Modern English earl. The opposite term,, is a semantic change in which a word gains increasingly negative connotations. AMERICAN DREAM: A theme in American literature, film, and art that expresses optimistic desires for self-improvement, freedom, and self-sufficiency. Harry Shaw notes that the term can have no clear and fixed expression because 'it means whatever its user has in mind a particular time' (12).

In general, it connotes 'life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness' in Thomas Jefferson's phrasing. One expression of this is the materialistic 'rags-to-riches' motif of many nineteenth-century novels. Here, through hard work, cleverness, and honesty, a young pauper rises in socio-economic status until he is a powerful and successful man.

An example here would be the stories by Horatio Alger. Other expressions of this theme focus on more abstract qualities like freedom or self-determination.

Many critics have argued that this dream is in many ways a myth in the twentieth- and twenty-first centuries, given America's frequent discriminatory treatment of immigrants and its continuing economic trends in which an ever smaller number of wealthy people accrue an ever larger percentage of material wealth with each generation, i.e., 'the rich get richer and the poor get babies.' Other events, such as the loss of the American frontier, segregation and exclusion of minorities, McCarthyism in the 1950s, unpopular wars in Vietnam in the 1960s, and gradual ecological devastation over the last hundred years, together have inspired literary works that criticize or question the American Dream--often seeing it as ultimately selfish or destructive on one or more levels. Examples of these writing would be Miller's Death of A Salesman, Ellison's Invisible Man, and Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath. AMERICAN ENGLISH: The English language as it developed in North America, especially in terms of its diction and the spelling and grammatical differences that distinguish it from British English. AMERICANISM: An expression that is characteristic of the U.S.A. Or one which first developed in America.

AMESLAN: American Sign Language--a language composed of hand-signs for the deaf. AMPHIBRACH: In classical poetry, a three-syllable poetic consisting of a light stress, heavy stress, and a light stress--short on both ends. Amphibrachs are quite rare in English, but they can be found in special circumstances, especially when the poet manipulates the caesura to create an unusual effect. An example of an English word forming an amphibrach is crustacean. An amphibrach is the reverse-form of an.

AMPHIMACER: A three-syllable consisting of a heavy, light, and heavy stress. Poetry written in amphimacers is called cretic meter. Amphimacer is rarely used in English poetry, but it is quite common in Greek. An example of an English phrase forming an amphimacer is deaf-and-dumb.

Download Ride Out Kid Ink. An amphimacer is the reverse-form of an. AMPHISBAENIC RHYME: A poetic structure invented by Edmund Wilson in which final words in strategic lines do not rhyme in the traditional sense, but rather reverse their order of consonants and vowels to appear backwards.

For example, Wilson writes: But tonight I come lone and be lated-- Foreseeing in every detail, And resolved for a day to side step My friends and their guests and their pets. The colored sections above have the amphisbaenic features. AMPHITHEATER: An open-air theater, especially the unroofed public playhouses in the suburbs of London. Shakespeare's Globe and the Rose are two examples.

ANACHRONISM: Placing an event, person, item, or verbal expression in the wrong historical period. In Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Shakespeare writes the following lines. I walked up the door, shut the stairs, said my shoes, took off my prayers, turned off my bed, got into the light, all because you kissed me goodnight. Here, she makes use of anastrophe in nearly every line. Alternatively, we can use the term anastrophe as a reference to entire narratives in which the sequence of events are chopped into sections and then 'shuffled' or 'scrambled' into an unusual narrative order.

An example of this type of anastrophe might be the sequence of events in Quentin Tarentino's film Pulp Fiction or Kurt Vonnegut's novel Slaughterhouse Five. Gigaware Mouse Driver Windows 8 more. Contrast with. ANATOLIAN: A branch of languages spoken in Asia Minor, including Hittite.

ANCHORESS: A female anchorite. These women were eremites or hermits in the medieval period who would request permission from the local pastor to be walled up alive in a small cell attached to the side of the church. There the anchoress would live out the rest of her days, relying upon the charity of the local community to provide food and water through a small opening. The practice was a common one in the medieval period.

Such hermits were considered especially holy for giving up worldly concerns, and they were often highly respected as spiritual counselors. Male anchoresses are called anchorites, and the enclosures they dwell in are called. The medieval writer Julian of Norwich was one such anchoress. ANCHORHOLD: In medieval times, an enclosure in the wall of a church where an or would be sealed up alive as a gesture of faith. ANCHORITE: An eremite or hermit in the medieval period who requests permission from the local pastor to be sealed up in a small cell attached to the side of the church, where the anchorite would live out the rest of his days relying upon the charity of the local community to provide food and water through a small opening. The practice was a common one in the medieval period.

Such hermits were considered especially holy for giving up worldly concerns, and they were often highly respected as spiritual counselors. Female anchorites are called anchoresses, and the enclosures in which they dwell are called. ANCILLARY CHARACTERS (Latin ancilla: 'helper' or 'maid'): Less important characters who are not the primary or, but who highlight these characters or interact with them in such a way as to provide insight into the narrative action.

Typical ancillary characters include,,,,, and. See for more information. ANECDOTE: A short narrative account of an amusing, unusual, revealing, or interesting event. A good anecdote has a single, definite point, and the setting, dialogue, and characters are usually subordinate to the point of the story. Usually, the anecdote does not exist alone, but it is combined with other material such as expository essays or arguments. Writers may use anecdotes to clarify abstract points, to humanize individuals, or to create a memorable image in the reader's mind. Anecdotes are similar to exempla.

ANGLIAN: The dialects of Old English spoken in Mercia and Northumbria. Not to be confused with the word Anglican.

ANGLICAN CHURCH: The Protestant Church in England that originated when King Henry VIII broke his ties to the Vatican in Rome (the Catholic Church). ANGLO-FRISIAN: The sub-branch of West Germanic including and. ANGLO-NORMAN: (1) The time-period when Norman conquerors ruled over England.

During the Anglo-Norman period from 1066 until about 1200, Norman French was the language of literature and culture in England. (2) The dialect of Norman French that evolved in England after the Normans came with William the Conquer, fought the Battle of Hastings, and ruled over England afterward. Scholars typically abbreviate the phrase as 'AN.' A sample writer from the Anglo-Norman period was Marie de France. ANGLO-SAXON: (1) Historically, the term refers to a group of Teutonic tribes who invaded England in the fifth and sixth centuries following the departure of Roman legions in 410 CE. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, came from the northern parts of Europe and gave their name (Angle-Land) to England, driving the native Celtic peoples into the farthest western and northern regions of Britain.

We can also refer to the time-period of 410 CE up until about 1066 CE as the 'Anglo-Saxon' historical period in Britain. In linguistics, the term Anglo-Saxon is also used to refer to Old English, the language spoken by these tribes and the precursor of and. (2) In colloquial usage, the term Anglo-Saxon is often used to distinguish people of 'English' ethnicity in Great Britain, Canada, and the United States--hence like 'WASP' (White Anglo-Saxon Protestant). ANIMAL COMMUNICATION: The exchange of information among animals, especially as contrasted with human language and meta-language (Algeo 312).

Examples include pheremone trails left by ants, semaphore communications among bees, mating calls among birds, and vocal alerts concerning different predators among certain mammals. ANIMISM: The belief that animals, plants, and objects have their own souls or spirits inhabiting them, as in modern Japanese religions like Shinto or in many older hunter-gatherer societies in Africa, Polynesia, and Australia. Many plant spirits in classical Greek mythology probably originate in earlier animistic belief, such as dryads and hamadryads (tree-spirits), Oreiads (mountain pine-tree spirits), Meliades (fruit-trees), and Meliai (ash tree and honey-hive spirits). Other animistic spirits in Greek myth include the Oeneads and Krinaiai (well-spirits and fountain-spirits), Nephelai (cloud-spirits), Naiads (water-spirits), and Ithakiai (cave-spring spirits). See also and. ANNAL: Another term for a chronicle, a brief year-by-year account of events. ANONYMOUS: Of unknown authorship, either because the historical records are missing to shed light on the author's identity, or because the author deliberately hid his identity.

Probably 90% of surviving medieval literature lacks authorial attribution. In the case of folklore and much mythology, the oldest versions are also usually anonymous. ANTAGONIST: See discussion under, below. ANTHIMERIA: Artfully using a different part of speech to act as another in violation of the normal rules of grammar. This switch might involve treating a verb like a noun, or a noun like a verb, or an adjective like a verb, and so on.

Thus, in 1960s pop culture, Nancy Sinatra's song 'These Boots Are Made for Walkin' has a speaker who tells the implied audience, 'You keep lying when you ought to be truthing.... You keep saming when you ought to be changing.' In a more literary vein, e.

Cummings might speak of how 'he sang his didn't, he danced his did.' A television advertisement might exhort its listeners to ' Gift him with Sports Illustrated magazine for Christmas' (as opposed to give him Sports Illustrated for Christmas).

Rabelais might state, 'I am going in search of the great perhaps' and when the priest Angelo is doing an effective job of controlling the city, we hear that 'Lord Angelo dukes it well' in Shakespeare's Measure for Measure (III, iii), and so on. Anthimeria allows poets to step into an extra-verbal realm to suggest and hint at that which cannot be put easily in words without a loss of verbal magic. Linguists more generally call this device ' form shift.'

ANTHOLOGY (from Grk. Anther+ logos, 'flower-words'): Literally implying a collection of flowers, the term anthology refers to a collection of poetry, drama, or verse. English majors may be familiar with the ubiquitous Norton Anthology of British Literature, for instance. The first collection of poetry thus labeled was The Anthology, a collection of some 4,500 Greek poems dating between 490 BCE and 1,000 CE. ANTICATHOLICISM: Literature or rhetoric created (often by Protestants) for the purpose of countering Catholic doctrine or depicting Catholicism in a negative light. In Reformation and Post-Reformation British literature, anticatholic motifs frequently appear after the Anglican Church splits from Rome under Henry VIII. Examples include Spenser's Faerie Queene, in which Catholic associations surround villains like Duessa and Archimago.

A similar surge of anticatholic characterizations appear just before and during the Enlightenment period, notably in Gothic literature like Lewis' The Monk, in which convents and monasteries are depicted as hypocritical hives of.