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• • • Biogeography is the study of the distribution of and in and through. Organisms and biological often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of,, and habitat.

Is the branch of biogeography that studies the distribution of plants. Is the branch that studies distribution of animals. Knowledge of spatial variation in the numbers and types of organisms is as vital to us today as it was to our early human, as we adapt to heterogeneous but geographically predictable. Biogeography is an integrative field of inquiry that unites concepts and information from,,, and.

Modern biogeographic research combines information and ideas from many fields, from the physiological and ecological constraints on organismal to and phenomena operating at global spatial scales and time frames. The short-term interactions within a habitat and species of organisms describe the ecological application of biogeography. Historical biogeography describes the long-term, evolutionary periods of time for broader classifications of organisms. Early scientists, beginning with, contributed to the development of biogeography as a science.

Beginning in the mid-18th century, Europeans explored the world and discovered the of life. The scientific theory of biogeography grows out of the work of (1769–1859), (1804–1881), (1806–1893), (1823–1913), (1829–1913) and other biologists and explorers. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Introduction [ ] The patterns of species distribution across geographical areas can usually be explained through a combination of historical factors such as:,,, and. Through observing the geographic distribution of species, we can see associated variations in, river routes, habitat, and.

Additionally, this science considers the geographic constraints of areas and isolation, as well as the available ecosystem energy supplies. Over periods of changes, biogeography includes the study of plant and animal species in: their past and/or present living; their interim living sites; and/or their survival locales. As writer David Quammen put it, '. Fileice Downloader Serial Number Free. biogeography does more than ask Which species? It also asks Why? And, what is sometimes more crucial, Why not?' Modern biogeography often employs the use of (GIS), to understand the factors affecting organism distribution, and to predict future trends in organism distribution. Often mathematical models and GIS are employed to solve ecological problems that have a spatial aspect to them.

Biogeography is most keenly observed on the world's. These habitats are often much more manageable areas of study because they are more condensed than larger ecosystems on the mainland. Islands are also ideal locations because they allow scientists to look at habitats that new have only recently colonized and can observe how they disperse throughout the island and change it. They can then apply their understanding to similar but more complex mainland habitats.

Islands are very diverse in their, ranging from the tropical to arctic climates. This diversity in habitat allows for a wide range of species study in different parts of the world.

One scientist who recognized the importance of these geographic locations was, who remarked in his journal 'The Zoology of Archipelagoes will be well worth examination'. Two chapters in were devoted to geographical distribution.

History [ ] 18th century [ ] The first discoveries that contributed to the development of biogeography as a science began in the mid-18th century, as Europeans explored the world and discovered the biodiversity of life. During the 18th century most views on the world were shaped around religion and for many natural theologists, the bible., in the mid-18th century, initiated the ways to classify organisms through his exploration of undiscovered territories. When he noticed that species were not as perpetual as he believed, he developed the Mountain Explanation to explain the distribution of biodiversity. When Noah’s ark landed on Mount Ararat and the waters receded, the animals dispersed throughout different elevations on the mountain. This showed different species in different climates proving species were not constant.

Linnaeus’ findings set a basis for ecological biogeography. Through his strong beliefs in Christianity, he was inspired to classify the living world, which then gave way to additional accounts of secular views on geographical distribution. He argued that the structure of an animal was very closely related to its physical surroundings. This was important to a George Louis Buffon’s rival theory of distribution. Distribution of four Permian and Triassic fossil groups used as biogeographic evidence for continental drift, and land bridging Moving on to the 20th century, introduced the Theory of in 1912, though it was not widely accepted until the 1960s. This theory was revolutionary because it changed the way that everyone thought about species and their distribution around the globe. The theory explained how continents were formerly joined together in one large landmass,, and slowly drifted apart due to the movement of the plates below Earth’s surface.

The evidence for this theory is in the geological similarities between varying locations around the globe, fossil comparisons from different continents, and the jigsaw puzzle shape of the landmasses on Earth. Though Wegener did not know the mechanism of this concept of Continental Drift, this contribution to the study of biogeography was significant in the way that it shed light on the importance of environmental and geographic similarities or differences as a result of climate and other pressures on the planet. Importantly, late in his career Wegener recognised that testing his theory required measurement of continental movement rather than inference from fossils species distributions. The publication of by and in 1967 showed that the species richness of an area could be predicted in terms of such factors as habitat area, immigration rate and extinction rate. This added to the long-standing interest in. The application of island biogeography theory to spurred the development of the fields of and. Classic biogeography has been expanded by the development of, creating a new discipline known as.

This development allowed scientists to test theories about the origin and dispersal of populations, such as. For example, while classic biogeographers were able to speculate about the origins of species in the, phylogeography allows them to test theories of relatedness between these populations and putative source populations in and.

Biogeography continues as a point of study for many life sciences and geography students worldwide, however it may be under different broader titles within institutions such as ecology or evolutionary biology. In recent years, one of the most important and consequential developments in biogeography has been to show how multiple organisms, including mammals like monkeys and reptiles like lizards, overcame barriers such as large oceans that many biogeographers formerly believed were impossible to cross.

1998 Lincoln Town Car Service Manual here. Biogeographic regions of Europe Modern applications [ ] Biogeography now incorporates many different fields including but not limited to physical geography, geology, botany and plant biology, zoology, and general biology. A biogeographer’s main focus is on what environmental factors and what the influence of humans do to the distribution of the specific species of study. In terms of applications of biogeography as a science today, technological advances have allowed satellite imaging and processing of the Earth. Two main types of satellite imaging that are important within modern biogeography are Global Production Efficiency Model (GLO-PEM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). GLO-PEM uses satellite-imaging gives “repetitive, spatially contiguous, and time specific observations of vegetation.” These observations are on a global scale. GIS can show certain processes on the earth’s surface like whale locations, sea surface temperatures, and bathymetry. Current scientists also use coral reefs to delve into the history of biogeography through the fossilized reefs.

Paleobiogeography [ ] Paleobiogeography goes one step further to include data and considerations of. Using molecular analyses and corroborated by, it has been possible to demonstrate that evolved first in the region of or the adjacent (which at that time lay somewhat further north and had a temperate climate). From there, they spread to the other continents and Southeast Asia – the part of then closest to their origin of dispersal – in the late, before achieving a global distribution in the early. Not knowing that at the time of dispersal, the Indian Ocean was much narrower than it is today, and that South America was closer to the Antarctic, one would be hard pressed to explain the presence of many 'ancient' lineages of perching birds in Africa, as well as the mainly South American distribution of the.

Paleobiogeography also helps constrain hypotheses on the timing of biogeographic events such as and, and provides unique information on the formation of regional biotas. For example, data from species-level phylogenetic and biogeographic studies tell us that the fish fauna accumulated in increments over a period of tens of millions of years, principally by means of allopatric speciation, and in an arena extending over most of the area of tropical South America (Albert & Reis 2011). In other words, unlike some of the well-known insular faunas (, Hawaiian drosophilid flies, African rift lake ), the species-rich Amazonian ichthyofauna is not the result of recent. For organisms, landscapes are divided naturally into discrete by, episodically isolated and reunited by processes. In regions like the (or more generally Greater Amazonia, the Amazon basin, basin, and ) with an exceptionally low (flat) topographic relief, the many waterways have had a highly reticulated history over. In such a context, is an important factor affecting the evolution and distribution of freshwater organisms.

Stream capture occurs when an upstream portion of one river drainage is diverted to the downstream portion of an adjacent basin. This can happen as a result of (or ), natural damming created by a, or headward or lateral of the watershed between adjacent basins.

Concepts and fields [ ] Biogeography is a synthetic science, related to,,,,, and.