Abstract The objective of this article is to show that Whitehead had a very important philosophy of education both on the formal level. The consistency found is well worth noting. I researched many of Whitehead's major works for his formal views and Lucian Price's Dialogues of Alfred North Whitehead. In my opinion Price's book is the best available for the purpose of getting Whitehead's candid informal view of education. The paper is divided into sections according to the particular subject matter.

Since Whitehead describes education as the study of “life and all of its manifestations”. It is appropriate to cover some of these areas: the purpose of education, the role of science and speculation, education and civilization, and both the process of education and process education are reviewed. Whitehead's philosophy of education is sweeping in scope. In his philosophy we find the importance of experience, imagination, speculation, generalization, factual knowledge, specialization, relevance, intuition, novelty, curiosity, theory, practice, pleasure, harmony, freedom, discipline, technical and liberal education and unification.

He, in fact, unifies all these seemingly different areas into a coherent philosophy of education.

Oct 14, 2017. Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) was a British mathematician, logician and philosopher best known for his work in mathematical logic and the philosophy of science. In collaboration with. AI, Adventures of Ideas, New York: Macmillan, 1933; repr., New York: Free Press, 1967, IA. Collection of texts.

(),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Baruch Spinoza (; Dutch:; born Benedito de Espinosa, Portuguese:; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677, later Benedict de Spinoza) was a philosopher of / origin. By laying the groundwork for the 18th-century and modern, including modern conceptions of the self and the universe, he came to be considered one of the great of. Along with, Spinoza was a leading philosophical figure of the. Spinoza's given name, which means 'Blessed', varies among different languages. In Hebrew, it is written ברוך שפינוזה‎.

His Portuguese name is Benedito 'Bento' de Espinosa. In his Latin works, he used Latin: Benedictus de Spinoza. Spinoza's,, was published posthumously in 1677.

The work opposed Descartes' philosophy on, and earned Spinoza recognition as one of 's most important thinkers. In the Ethics, 'Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece, and one in which the refined conceptions of medieval philosophy are finally turned against themselves and destroyed entirely'.

Said, 'The fact is that Spinoza is made a testing-point in modern philosophy, so that it may really be said: You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all.' His philosophical accomplishments and moral character prompted to name him 'the 'prince' of philosophers.'

Spinoza was raised in a Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam. He developed highly-controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the and the nature of the Divine. Issued a ( חרם‎) against him, causing him to be effectively shunned by Jewish society at age 23. His books were also later put on the Catholic Church's. Spinoza lived an outwardly-simple life as a grinder, turning down rewards and honours throughout his life, including prestigious teaching positions.

He died at the age of 44 allegedly of a lung illness, perhaps or exacerbated by the inhalation of fine glass dust while grinding optical lenses. He is buried in the churchyard of the Christian in. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Biography [ ] Family and community origins [ ] Spinoza's ancestors were of descent and were a part of the community of that had settled in the city of in the wake of the (1536), which had resulted in and expulsions from the. The Spinoza family ('de Espinosa' or 'Espinosa' in Portuguese and in Spanish; it could also be spelled as 'de Espinoza' or 'Espinoza' in both languages) probably had its origins in, near, or in, near, both in,. The family was in 1492 and fled to Portugal. Portugal compelled them to convert to Catholicism in 1498.

Attracted by the Decree of Toleration issued in 1579 by the, Portuguese ' first sailed to Amsterdam in 1593 and promptly reconverted to Judaism. In 1598 permission was granted to build a synagogue, and in 1615 an ordinance for the admission and government of the Jews was passed. As a community of exiles, the Portuguese Jews of Amsterdam were highly proud of their identity. Spinoza's father was born roughly a century after this forced conversion in the small Portuguese city of, near in. When Spinoza's father was still a child, Spinoza's grandfather, Isaac de Spinoza, who was from, took his family to in France.

They were expelled in 1615 and moved to, where Isaac died in 1627. Spinoza's father, Miguel (Michael), and his uncle, Manuel, then moved to Amsterdam where they resumed the practice of Judaism. Miguel was a successful merchant and became a warden of the synagogue and of the Amsterdam Jewish school. He buried three wives and three of his six children died before reaching adulthood.

17th-century Netherlands [ ] Amsterdam and Rotterdam operated as important centres where merchant ships from many parts of the world brought people of various customs and beliefs. This flourishing commercial activity encouraged a culture relatively tolerant of the play of new ideas, to a considerable degree sheltered from the censorious hand of ecclesiastical authority (though those considered to have gone 'too far' might have gotten persecuted even in the Netherlands). Not by chance were the philosophical works of both Descartes and Spinoza developed in the cultural and intellectual background of the Dutch Republic in the 17th century. Spinoza may have had access to a circle of friends who were unconventional in terms of social tradition, including members of the.

One of the people he knew was, a brilliant student in; others included, with whom Spinoza is known to have corresponded. Early life [ ]. Study room of Spinoza Spinoza spent his remaining 21 years writing and studying as a private scholar. Spinoza believed in a 'Philosophy of tolerance and benevolence' and actually lived the life which he preached. He was criticized and ridiculed during his life and afterwards for his alleged atheism. However, even those who were against him 'had to admit he lived a saintly life'.

Besides the religious controversies, nobody really had much bad to say about Spinoza other than, 'he sometimes enjoyed watching spiders chase flies'. After the cherem, the Amsterdam municipal authorities expelled Spinoza from Amsterdam, 'responding to the appeals of the rabbis, and also of the Calvinist clergy, who had been vicariously offended by the existence of a free thinker in the synagogue'. He spent a brief time in or near the village of, but returned soon afterwards to Amsterdam and lived there quietly for several years, giving private philosophy lessons and grinding lenses, before leaving the city in 1660 or 1661. During this time in Amsterdam, Spinoza wrote his Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being, which he never published in his lifetime—assuming with good reason that it might get suppressed. Two Dutch translations of it survive, discovered about 1810.'

Spinoza moved around 1660 or 1661 from Amsterdam to, (near ), the headquarters of the Collegiants. In Rijnsburg, he began work on his Descartes' 'Principles of Philosophy' as well as on his masterpiece, the Ethics. In 1663, he returned briefly to Amsterdam, where he finished and published Descartes' 'Principles of Philosophy,' the only work published in his lifetime under his own name, and then moved the same year to. Voorburg [ ] In Voorburg, Spinoza continued work on the Ethics and corresponded with scientists, philosophers, and theologians throughout Europe. He also wrote and published his Theological Political Treatise in 1670, in defence of secular and constitutional government, and in support of, the Grand Pensionary of the Netherlands, against the Stadholder, the Prince of Orange. Visited Spinoza and claimed that Spinoza's life was in danger when supporters of the murdered de Witt in 1672. While published anonymously, the work did not long remain so, and de Witt's enemies characterized it as 'forged in Hell by a renegade Jew and the Devil, and issued with the knowledge of Jan de Witt.'

It was condemned in 1673 by the Synod of the Reformed Church and formally banned in 1674. Lens-grinding and optics [ ] Spinoza earned a modest living from lens-grinding and instrument making, yet he was involved in important optical investigations of the day while living in Voorburg, through correspondence and friendships with scientist and mathematician, including debate over microscope design with Huygens, favouring small objectives and collaborating on calculations for a prospective 40 ft telescope which would have been one of the largest in Europe at the time. The quality of Spinoza's lenses was much praised by Christiaan Huygens, among others. In fact, his technique and instruments were so esteemed that ground a 'clear and bright' 42 ft. Telescope lens in 1687 from one of Spinoza's grinding dishes, ten years after his death. The exact type of lenses that Spinoza made are not known, but very likely included lenses for both the microscope and telescope. He was said by anatomist to have produced an 'excellent' microscope, the quality of which was the foundation of Kerckring's anatomy claims.

During his time as a lens and instrument maker, he was also supported by small but regular donations from close friends. The Hague [ ] In 1670, Spinoza moved to where he lived on a small pension from Jan de Witt and a small annuity from the brother of his dead friend, Simon de Vries. He worked on the Ethics, wrote an unfinished Hebrew grammar, began his Political Treatise, wrote two scientific essays ('On the Rainbow' and 'On the Calculation of Chances'), and began a Dutch translation of the Bible (which he later ). Spinoza chose for his device the Latin word 'caute' ('cautiously'), inscribed beneath a rose, itself a symbol of secrecy.

'For, having chosen to write in a language that was so widely intelligible, he was compelled to hide what he had written.' Spinoza was offered the chair of philosophy at the, but he refused it, perhaps because of the possibility that it might in some way curb his.

In 1676, Spinoza met with Leibniz at The Hague for a discussion of his principal philosophical work,, which had been completed in 1676. This meeting was described in 's The Courtier and the Heretic. Spinoza's health began to fail in 1676, and he died on 21 February 1677 at the age of 44. His premature death was said to be due to lung illness, possibly as a result of breathing in glass dust from the lenses that he ground. Later, a shrine was made of his home in The Hague. Textbooks and encyclopaedias often depict Spinoza as a solitary soul who eked out a living as a lens grinder; in reality, he had many friends but kept his needs to a minimum.

He preached a philosophy of tolerance and benevolence. Described him as living 'a saintly life.' Stuart Phelps noted, 'No one has ever come nearer to the ideal life of the philosopher than Spinoza.' Wrote, 'As a teacher of reality, he practised his own wisdom, and was surely one of the most exemplary human beings ever to have lived.'

According to: 'In outward appearance he was unpretending, but not careless. His way of living was exceedingly modest and retired; often he did not leave his room for many days together. He was likewise almost incredibly frugal; his expenses sometimes amounted only to a few pence a day.' Bloom writes of Spinoza, 'He appears to have had no sexual life.' Spinoza also corresponded with, a radical Protestant and merchant. Serrarius was a patron to Spinoza after Spinoza left the Jewish community and even had letters sent and received for the philosopher to and from third parties.

Spinoza and Serrarius maintained their relationship until Serrarius' death in 1669. By the beginning of the 1660s, Spinoza's name became more widely known, and eventually Gottfried Leibniz and paid him visits, as stated in Matthew Stewart's The Courtier and the Heretic. Spinoza corresponded with Oldenburg for the rest of his short life. Writings and correspondence [ ] The writings of have been described as 'Spinoza's starting point.' Spinoza's first publication was his geometric exposition (proofs using the geometric method on the model of Euclid with definitions, axioms, etc.) of Descartes's Parts I and II of Principles of Philosophy (1663). Spinoza has been associated with Leibniz and Descartes as 'rationalists' in contrast to 'empiricists.'

Spinoza engaged in correspondence from December 1664 to June 1665 with, an amateur theologian, who questioned Spinoza on the definition of. Later in 1665, Spinoza notified Oldenburg that he had started to work on a new book, the, published in 1670. Leibniz disagreed harshly with Spinoza in his own manuscript 'Refutation of Spinoza,' but he is also known to have met with Spinoza on at least one occasion (as mentioned above), and his own work bears some striking resemblances to specific important parts of Spinoza's philosophy (see: ).

When the public reactions to the anonymously published Theologico-Political Treatise were extremely unfavourable to his brand of Cartesianism, Spinoza was compelled to abstain from publishing more of his works. Wary and independent, he wore a which he used to mark his letters and which was engraved with a rose and the word 'caute' (Latin for 'cautiously'). The Ethics and all other works, apart from the Descartes' Principles of Philosophy and the Theologico-Political Treatise, were published after his death in the, edited by his friends in secrecy to avoid confiscation and destruction of manuscripts. The Ethics contains many still-unresolved obscurities and is written with a forbidding mathematical structure modelled on Euclid's geometry and has been described as a 'superbly cryptic masterwork.' Philosophy [ ] Substance, attributes, and modes [ ].

— Spinoza argued that God exists and is abstract and impersonal. Spinoza's view of God is what describes as. Spinoza has also been described as an 'Epicurean materialist,' specifically in reference to his opposition to Cartesian mind-body dualism. This view was held by Epicureans before him, as they believed that atoms with their probabilistic paths were the only substance that existed fundamentally. Spinoza, however, deviated significantly from Epicureans by adhering to strict determinism, much like the Stoics before him, in contrast to the Epicurean belief in the probabilistic path of atoms, which is more in line with contemporary thought on.

Spinoza's system imparted order and unity to the tradition of radical, offering powerful weapons for prevailing against 'received authority.' He contended that everything that exists in Nature (i.e., everything in the Universe) is one Reality (substance) and there is only one set of rules governing the whole of the reality which surrounds us and of which we are part. Spinoza viewed God and Nature as two names for the same reality, namely a single, fundamental (meaning 'that which stands beneath' rather than 'matter') that is the basis of the universe and of which all lesser 'entities' are actually modes or modifications, that all things are determined by Nature to exist and cause effects, and that the complex chain of cause and effect is understood only in part. His identification of God with nature was more fully explained in his posthumously published Ethics. Spinoza's main contention with Cartesian mind–body dualism was that, if mind and body were truly distinct, then it is not clear how they can coordinate in any manner. Humans presume themselves to have, he argues, which is a result of their awareness of appetites that affect their minds, while being unable to understand the reasons why they want and act as they do. Spinoza contends that ' Deus sive Natura' is a being of infinitely many attributes, of which thought and extension are two.

His account of the nature of reality, then, seems to treat the physical and mental worlds as intertwined, causally related, and deriving from the same substance. It is important to note here that, in Parts 3 through 4 of the Ethics, Spinoza describes how the human mind is affected by both mental and physical factors. He directly contests dualism.

The universal substance emanates both body and mind; while they are different attributes, there is no fundamental difference between these aspects. This formulation is a historically significant solution to the known as. Spinoza's system also envisages a God that does not rule over the universe by Providence in which God can make changes, but a God which itself is the deterministic system of which everything in nature is a part. Spinoza argues that 'things could not have been produced by God in any other way or in any other order than is the case,'; he directly challenges a transcendental God which actively responds to events in the universe.

Everything that has and will happen is a part of a long chain of cause and effect which, at a metaphysical level, humans are unable to change. No amount of prayer or ritual will sway God. Only knowledge of God, or the existence which humans inhabit, allows them to best respond to the world around them.

Not only is it impossible for two infinite substances to exist (two infinities being absurd), God—being the ultimate substance—cannot be affected by anything else, or else it would be affected by something else, and not be the fundamental substance. Spinoza was a thoroughgoing who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, with freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand why we act as we do. By forming more 'adequate' ideas about what we do and our emotions or, we become the adequate cause of our effects (internal or external), which entails an increase in activity (versus passivity).

This means that we become both more free and more like God, as Spinoza argues in the Scholium to Prop. However, Spinoza also held that everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Therefore, humans have no free will.

They believe, however, that their will is free. This illusionary perception of freedom stems from our human consciousness, experience, and indifference to prior natural causes. Humans think they are free but they ″dream with their eyes open″. For Spinoza, our actions are guided entirely by natural impulses. In his letter to G.

Schuller (Letter 58), he wrote: 'men are conscious of their desire and unaware of the causes by which [their desires] are determined.' This picture of Spinoza's determinism is ever more illuminated through reading this famous quote in Ethics: ″the infant believes that it is by free will that it seeks the breast; the angry boy believes that by free will he wishes vengeance; the timid man thinks it is with free will he seeks flight; the drunkard believes that by a free command of his mind he speaks the things which when sober he wishes he had left unsaid. All believe that they speak by a free command of the mind, whilst, in truth, they have no power to restrain the impulse which they have to speak.″ Thus for Spinoza morality and ethical judgement like choice is predicated on an illusion.

For Spinoza, ″Blame″ and ″Praise″ are non existent human ideals only fathomable in the mind because we are so acclimatized to human consciousness interlinking with our experience that we have a false ideal of choice predicated upon this. Spinoza's philosophy has much in common with inasmuch as both philosophies sought to fulfil a therapeutic role by instructing people how to attain happiness. However, Spinoza differed sharply from the Stoics in one important respect: he utterly rejected their contention that could defeat emotion.

On the contrary, he contended, an emotion can only be displaced or overcome by a stronger emotion. For him, the crucial distinction was between active and passive emotions, the former being those that are rationally understood and the latter those that are not. He also held that knowledge of true causes of passive emotion can transform it to an active emotion, thus anticipating one of the key ideas of 's.

Ethical philosophy [ ] Spinoza shared ethical beliefs with ancient Epicureans, in renouncing ethics beyond the material world, although Epicureans focused more on physical pleasure and Spinoza more on emotional wellbeing. Encapsulated at the start in his Treatise on the Improvement of the Understanding ( Tractatus de intellectus emendatione) is the core of Spinoza's ethical philosophy, what he held to be the true and final good. Spinoza held good and evil to be concepts, claiming that nothing is intrinsically good or bad except relative to a particularity. Things that had classically been seen as good or evil, Spinoza argued, were simply good or bad for humans. Spinoza believes in a deterministic universe in which 'All things in nature proceed from certain [definite] necessity and with the utmost perfection.' Nothing happens by chance in Spinoza's world, and nothing is.

Given Spinoza's insistence on a completely ordered world where 'necessity' reigns, have no absolute meaning. The world as it exists looks imperfect only because of our limited perception. Spinoza's ' Ethics' [ ]. The opening page of Spinoza's magnum opus, Ethics In the universe anything that happens comes from the essential nature of objects, or of God or Nature. According to Spinoza, reality is perfection.

If circumstances are seen as unfortunate it is only because of our inadequate conception of reality. While components of the chain of cause and effect are not beyond the understanding of human reason, human grasp of the infinitely complex whole is limited because of the limits of science to empirically take account of the whole sequence. Spinoza also asserted that sense perception, though practical and useful, is inadequate for discovering truth. His concept of ' states that human beings' natural inclination is to strive toward preserving an essential being, and asserts that virtue/human power is defined by success in this preservation of being by the guidance of reason as one's central ethical doctrine.

According to Spinoza, the highest virtue is the intellectual love or knowledge of God/Nature/Universe. Also in the 'Ethics', Spinoza discusses his beliefs about what he considers to be the three kinds of knowledge that come with perceptions. The first kind of knowledge he writes about is the knowledge of experiences. More precisely, this first type of knowledge can be known as the knowledge of things that could be “mutilated, confused, and without order.” Another explanation of what the first knowledge can be is that it is the knowledge of dangerous reasoning.

Dangerous reason lacks any type of rationality, and causes the mind to be in a “passive” state. This type of “passive mind” that Spinoza writes about in the earlier books of The Ethics is a state of the mind in which adequate causes become passions. Spinoza’s second knowledge involves reasoning plus emotions.

He explains that this knowledge is had by the rationality of any adequate causes that have to do with anything common to the human mind. An example of this could be anything that is classified as being of imperfect virtue. Imperfect virtues are seen as those which are incomplete. Many philosophers, such as Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle, would compare imperfect virtue to pagan virtue. Spinoza defines the third and final knowledge as the knowledge of God, which requires rationality and reason of the mind. In more detail, Spinoza uses this type of knowledge to join together the essence of God with the individual essence. This knowledge is also formed from any adequate causes that include perfect virtue.

In the final part of the ', his concern with the meaning of 'true blessedness', and his explanation of how emotions must be detached from external causes in order to master them, foreshadow psychological techniques developed in the 1900s. His concept of three types of knowledge—opinion, reason, intuition—and his assertion that intuitive knowledge provides the greatest satisfaction of mind, lead to his proposition that the more we are conscious of ourselves and Nature/Universe, the more perfect and blessed we are (in reality) and that only intuitive knowledge is eternal. History of reception [ ] Pantheist, panentheist, or atheist? An unfavorable engraving depiction of philosopher Spinoza, captioned in Latin, 'A Jew and an Atheist'. It is a widespread belief that Spinoza equated God with the material universe.

He has therefore been called the 'prophet' and 'prince' and most eminent expounder of. More specifically, in a letter to Henry Oldenburg he states, 'as to the view of certain people that I identify God with Nature (taken as a kind of mass or corporeal matter), they are quite mistaken'. For Spinoza, our universe (cosmos) is a mode under two attributes of Thought and. God has infinitely many other attributes which are not present in our world. According to German philosopher (1883–1969), when Spinoza wrote in Deus sive Natura (Latin for 'God or Nature'), Spinoza meant God was (nature doing what nature does; literally, 'nature naturing'), not (nature already created; literally, 'nature natured'). Jaspers believed that Spinoza, in his philosophical system, did not mean to say that God and Nature are interchangeable terms, but rather that God's transcendence was attested by his infinitely many attributes, and that two attributes known by humans, namely Thought and Extension, signified God's immanence.

Even God under the attributes of thought and extension cannot be identified strictly with our world. That world is of course 'divisible'; it has parts. But Spinoza said, 'no attribute of a substance can be truly conceived from which it follows that the substance can be divided', meaning that one cannot conceive an attribute in a way that leads to division of substance. He also said, 'a substance which is absolutely infinite is indivisible' (Ethics, Part I, Propositions 12 and 13). Following this logic, our world should be considered as a mode under two attributes of thought and extension.

Therefore, according to Jaspers, the pantheist formula 'One and All' would apply to Spinoza only if the 'One' preserves its transcendence and the 'All' were not interpreted as the totality of finite things. (1891–1976) suggested the term ', rather than 'pantheism' to describe Spinoza's view of the relation between God and the world. The world is not God, but it is, in a strong sense, 'in' God.

Not only do finite things have God as their cause; they cannot be conceived without God. However, American panentheist philosopher (1897–2000) insisted on the term to describe Spinoza's view.

In 1785, published a condemnation of Spinoza's pantheism, after was thought to have confessed on his deathbed to being a 'Spinozist', which was the equivalent in his time of being called an. Jacobi claimed that Spinoza's doctrine was pure materialism, because all Nature and God are said to be nothing but extended.

This, for Jacobi, was the result of Enlightenment rationalism and it would finally end in absolute atheism. Disagreed with Jacobi, saying that there is no actual difference between and pantheism. The issue became a major intellectual and religious concern for European civilization at the time. The attraction of Spinoza's philosophy to late 18th-century Europeans was that it provided an alternative to materialism, atheism, and deism.

Three of Spinoza's ideas strongly appealed to them: • the unity of all that exists; • the regularity of all that happens; • the identity of spirit and nature. By 1879, Spinoza’s pantheism was praised by many, but was considered by some to be alarming and dangerously inimical. Spinoza's 'God or Nature' ( Deus sive Natura) provided a living, natural God, in contrast to 's and the dead mechanism of 's (1709–1751) work, ( L'homme machine). Coleridge and Shelley saw in Spinoza's philosophy a religion of nature. Called him the 'God-intoxicated man'. Spinoza inspired the poet Shelley to write his essay '. Spinoza was considered to be an atheist because he used the word 'God' (Deus) to signify a concept that was different from that of traditional Judeo–Christian monotheism.

'Spinoza expressly denies personality and consciousness to God; he has neither intelligence, feeling, nor will; he does not act according to purpose, but everything follows necessarily from his nature, according to law.' Thus, Spinoza's cool, indifferent God is the antithesis to the concept of an anthropomorphic, fatherly God who cares about humanity. According to the, Spinoza's God is an “infinite intellect” ( Ethics 2p11c) — all knowing (2p3), and capable of loving both himself—and us, insofar as we are part of his perfection (5p35c).

And if the mark of a personal being is that it is one towards which we can entertain personal attitudes, then we should note too that Spinoza recommends amor intellectualis dei (the intellectual love of God) as the supreme good for man (5p33). However, the matter is complex. Spinoza's God does not have free will (1p32c1), he does not have purposes or intentions (1 appendix), and Spinoza insists that “neither intellect nor will pertain to the nature of God” (1p17s1). Moreover, while we may love God, we need to remember that God is really not the kind of being who could ever love us back. “He who loves God cannot strive that God should love him in return,” says Spinoza (5p19). Suggests that settling the question of Spinoza's atheism or pantheism depends on an analysis of attitudes.

If pantheism is associated with religiosity, then Spinoza is not a pantheist, since Spinoza believes that the proper stance to take towards God is not one of reverence or religious awe, but instead one of objective study and reason, since taking the religious stance would leave one open to the possibility of error and superstition. Comparison to Eastern philosophies [ ] Similarities between Spinoza's philosophy and Eastern philosophical traditions have been discussed by many authors. The 19th-century German Sanskritist was one of the early figures to notice the similarities between Spinoza's religious conceptions and the tradition of India, writing that Spinoza's thought was. A western system of philosophy which occupies a foremost rank amongst the philosophies of all nations and ages, and which is so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines.

We mean the philosophy of Spinoza, a man whose very life is a picture of that moral purity and intellectual indifference to the transitory charms of this world, which is the constant longing of the true Vedanta philosopher. Comparing the fundamental ideas of both we should have no difficulty in proving that, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would in all probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta philosophy., in his lectures, noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying 'the Brahman, as conceived in the Upanishads and defined by Sankara, is clearly the same as Spinoza's 'Substantia'.' , a founder of the also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay 'As to Spinoza's Deity—natura naturans—conceived in his attributes simply and alone; and the same Deity—as natura naturata or as conceived in the endless series of modifications or correlations, the direct out-flowing results from the properties of these attributes, it is the Vedantic Deity pure and simple.'

Spinoza's reception in the 19th and 20th centuries [ ] Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries grew even more interested in Spinoza, often from a left-wing or perspective. Liked Spinoza's account of the universe, interpreting it as. The philosophers,, and have each drawn upon Spinoza's philosophy. Deleuze's doctoral thesis, published in 1968, calls him 'the prince of philosophers'. Esteemed few philosophers, but he esteemed Spinoza.

However, Nietzsche never read Spinoza's works themselves, but learned about Spinoza from 's History of Modern Philosophy. When graduated from college, he published an essay, 'The Ethical Doctrine of Spinoza', in The Harvard Monthly.

Later, he wrote an introduction to Spinoza's Ethics and 'De intellectus emendatione'. In 1932, Santayana was invited to present an essay (published as 'Ultimate Religion') at a meeting at celebrating the tricentennial of Spinoza's birth. In Santayana's autobiography, he characterized Spinoza as his 'master and model' in understanding the naturalistic basis of morality. Spinoza's religious criticism and its effect on the philosophy of language [ ]. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus Philosopher evoked Spinoza with the title (suggested to him by ) of the English translation of his first definitive philosophical work,, an allusion to Spinoza's.

Elsewhere, Wittgenstein deliberately borrowed the expression from Spinoza ( Notebooks, 1914-16, p. 83). The structure of his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus does have some structural affinities with Spinoza's Ethics (though, admittedly, not with the latter's own Tractatus) in erecting complex philosophical arguments upon basic logical assertions and principles. Furthermore, in propositions 6.4311 and 6.45 he alludes to a Spinozian understanding of eternity and interpretation of the religious concept of eternal life, stating that 'If by eternity is understood not eternal temporal duration, but timelessness, then he lives eternally who lives in the present.'

(6.4311) 'The contemplation of the world sub specie aeterni is its contemplation as a limited whole.' (6.45) dedicated his first book, Spinoza's Critique of Religion, to an examination of the latter's ideas. In the book, Strauss identified Spinoza as part of the tradition of Enlightenment rationalism that eventually produced Modernity. Moreover, he identifies Spinoza and his works as the beginning of Jewish Modernity. More recently argued that, from 1650 to 1750, Spinoza was 'the chief challenger of the fundamentals of revealed religion, received ideas, tradition, morality, and what was everywhere regarded, in absolutist and non-absolutist states alike, as divinely constituted political authority.'

Spinoza in literature, art, and popular culture [ ] Spinoza has had influence beyond the confines of philosophy. • On the Chair's table in the Dutch Parliament, Spinoza's Tractatus theologico-politicus is one of three books thought to be most representative of the beliefs and ethics of the Dutch people; the other two are the and the. • The 17th-century philosopher, who also spent time in Amsterdam, was influenced by his 'pioneering and profound conceptions of religious tolerance and democratic government,' according to Cornel West. • The 19th-century novelist produced her own translation of the Ethics, the first known English translation of it. Eliot liked Spinoza's vehement attacks on superstition. • In his autobiography ', recounts the way in which Spinoza's Ethics calmed the sometimes unbearable emotional turbulence of his youth.

Goethe later displayed his grasp of Spinoza's metaphysics in a fragmentary elucidation of some Spinozist ontological principles entitled Study After Spinoza. Moreover, he cited Spinoza alongside Shakespeare and as one of the three strongest influences on his life and work. • The 20th century novelist alluded to one of Spinoza's central concepts with the title of his novel. [ ] • In the early episode, ', the antagonist, is seen reading Spinoza, and Mitchell's remark regarding his ease in comprehending Spinoza implies that his intellectual capacity is increasing dramatically. The dialogue indicates that is familiar with Spinoza's work, perhaps as part of his studies. • named Spinoza as the philosopher who exerted the most influence on his ( Weltanschauung). Spinoza equated God (infinite substance) with Nature, consistent with Einstein's belief in an impersonal deity.

In 1929, Einstein was asked in a telegram by whether he believed in God. Einstein responded by telegram: 'I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings.' • Spinoza's pantheism has also influenced environmental theory;, the father of the movement, acknowledged Spinoza as an important inspiration. [ ] • The Argentine writer was greatly influenced by Spinoza's world view. Borges makes allusions to the philosopher's work in many of his poems and short stories, as does in his short story The Spinoza of Market Street. • The title character of Hoffman's Hunger, the fifth novel by the Dutch novelist, reads and comments upon the over the course of the novel.

• Spinoza has been the subject of numerous biographies and scholarly treatises. • Spinoza is an important historical figure in the, where his portrait was featured prominently on the Dutch 1000-, until the euro was introduced in 2002. The highest and most prestigious scientific award of the Netherlands is named the. Spinoza was included in a 50 theme canon that attempts to summarise the history of the Netherlands. • The 2008 play 'New Jerusalem', by, is based on the cherem (ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion or excommunication) issued against Spinoza by the Talmud Torah congregation in Amsterdam in 1656, and events leading to it. Ives speculates that Spinoza was excommunicated in order to appease Dutch authorities who threatened to expel Amsterdam's Jews because of Spinoza's anti-religious activities amongst the city's Christian community.

• In Bento's Sketchbook (2011), the writer combines extracts from Spinoza, sketches, memoir, and observations in a book that contemplates the relationship of materialism to spirituality. According to Berger, what could be seen as a contradiction 'is beautifully resolved by Spinoza, who shows that it is not a duality, but in fact an essential unity.' • is shown several times to be an admirer of Spinoza in.

Shaw Laminate Flooring Installation Moisture Testing. Filemaker Pro 10 Download Crack. Thoughts from Spinoza, an anthology, is represented on Bloom's bookshelf towards the end of the novel. Bibliography [ ] • c. ( On the Improvement of the Understanding). ( The Principles of Cartesian Philosophy, translated by Samuel Shirley, with an Introduction and Notes by Steven Barbone and Lee Rice, Indianapolis, 1998). (A Theologico-Political Treatise).

(unfinished) () • 1677. ( The Ethics, finished 1674, but published posthumously) • 1677. Compendium grammatices linguae hebraeae (Hebrew Grammar). • Morgan, Michael L. Spinoza: Complete Works, with the Translation of Samuel Shirley, Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company.. • Edwin Curley (ed.), 1985–2016. The Collected Works of Spinoza (two volumes), Princeton: Princeton University Press.

• Spruit, Leen and Pina Totaro, 2011. The Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza’s Ethica, Leiden: Brill. See also [ ].