Drawing & Illustration - Free Art e-Books (a manual for the amateur, and basis of study for the professional artist: especially adapted to the use of public and private schools, as well as home instruction) by J.G. Chapman, ©1847;;; by Vernon Blake, ©1927 Available in a protected DAISY file only. It can only be opened on with a key issued by the Library of Congress:.. By John Ruskin, ©1920 'it may perhaps be thought, that in prefacing a Manual of Drawing, I ought to expatiate on the reasons why drawing should be learned; but those reasons appear to me so many and so weighty, that I cannot quickly state or enforce them.' (unprotected) by Walter Crane, © 1914 '.OUTLINE, one might say, is the Alpha and Omega of Art.

“On the following pages are Kekich Credos, which consist of 100 “success secrets” that my good friend Dave Kekich wrote and compiled as a result of. May 1, 2016 - 56 min - Uploaded by treverbettisI listened to a CD sometimes ago and just thought to share the principles I got in it.

It is the earliest mode of expression among primitive peoples, as it is with the individual child, and it has been cultivated for its power of characterization and expression, and as an ultimate test of draughtsmanship, by the most accomplished artists of all time.' (41.9 M) (unprotected) by Charles Maginnis Seventh Edition 'Of the kindred arts which group themselves under the head of Painting, none is based on such broad conventions as that with which we are immediately concerned—the art of Pen Drawing. In this medium, Nature's variety of color, when not positively ignored, is suggested by means of sharp black lines, of varying thickness, placed more or less closely together upon white paper; while natural form depends primarily for its representation upon arbitrary boundary lines.' (4.9MB) (8.9MB) by Arthur Leighton Guptill, © 1922 'AN ARTISTIC conception is susceptible of translation into graphic expression through a variety of media, but by a certain universality of custom, or perhaps more accurately of convenience, the familiar lead pencil has achieved a significance derived from its immediate association with all forms of pictorial delineation.' (29.2 MB) (unprotected) By Grant Wright, ©1904 'NOTHING distinguishes civilized from uncivilized man with as much emphasis as humor, and the various stages of civilization are marked by the character and amount of humor of each epoch.' By De Resco Leo Augsburg, ©1901 'book I.

A text book designed to teach drawing and color in the first, second and third grades. A text book of drawing designed for use in the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth grades.--book III. A text book designed to teach brush drawing, wash drawing, water colors, pen drawing. The human head and figure, chalk modeling, designing and constructive drawing in the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth grades. Also the high schools' (unprotected) by De Resco Leo Augsburg, ©1912, ©1901 (8.0 M) (7.1 M) by De Resco Leo Augsburg, ©1910 By James Parton, ©1877 'There must be something precious in caricature, else the enemies of truth and freedom would not hate it as they do. Some of the worst excesses and perversions of satiric art.'

, Light and Shade and Free-hand Perspective for the Use of Art Students and Teachers. By Anson Kent Cross, ©1892 'An artistic method is difficult to teach to students who have been taught an inartistic one, and the change will involve a struggle on the part of both pupil and teacher.' For modern methods of reproduction By Charles George Harper, ©1894 'Everywhere today is the Illustrator (artist he may not always be), for never was illustration so marketable as now; and the correspondence editors of the Sunday papers have at length found a new outlet for the superfluous energies.' By Harold B.Speed, ©1920 'No work on Art has been published in recent years which might be more advantageously placed in the hands of a young student, as a statement of the logical elements of drawing and painting. Every page shows robust common sense expressed in a clear style.'

(20.0 M) (18.6 M) (unprotected) A Series of Lessons Covering All Branches of the Art of Caricaturing By Mitchell Smith, ©1941 'In the writing and illustrating of this book my aim has been to produce a comprehensive and concise treatise on the art of caricaturing. It has been made as brief as is consistent with clearness and complete' ness. ' (4.1 MB) By Edmund J. Sullivan, ©1921 Available in the DjVu Format Only by Henry Blackburn, ©1896 'There is almost a revolution in illustration at the present time, and both old and young — teachers and scholars — are in want of a handbook for reference when turning to the new methods. The illustrator of to-day is called upon suddenly to take the place of the wood engraver in interpreting tone into line.' (9.5 MB) by Richard G.

Hatton, ©1910 'He who has mastered these three lines, especially if he can sketch them in by freehand, has practically mastered perspective. Programs Help Mortgage Debt Ratios. Of course the solids do not necessarily occur lying flat on a horizontal surface, such as the ground. He, too, who would master sketching in perspective, must certainly be able to draw from imagination.' (5.3 MB) a book for the student and the general reader By Edwin George Lutz ',,,But should drawing from the actual objects be so hard?

Wouldn't it be just as simple as working from the flat if the student could let himself believe that the visual rays from all the points of the object, or the view, were brought forward to a supposed plane directly in front of him? This plane with the object or view thus ideally outlined he would need merely to consider as a huge flat copy to be faithfully imitated.' With 27 illustrations designed by Thomas Rowbotham by Thomas Rowbotham, 48th ed. ©1912 'In the brief course of instruction proposed in the following pages, the object is to lead the student to a successful result by the simplest means. The rules are few; but if carefully studied, they will be found applicable to every object occurring in ordinary experience.' Principles and methods of expression in the pictorial representation of common objects, interiors, buildings, and landscapes By Dora Miriam Norton, 1908 'FREEHAND Perspective teaches those few principles or truths which govern the appearance of things to the eye, and the application of these principles to the varied conditions encountered in drawing.

Strictly speaking, there are but two foundation truths in perspective, namely.' By Edmund Joseph Sullivan, ©1922 'What, after all, is drawing but this the shortest line between the two points of an infinity withheld from our comprehension?

A short cut that the artist takes, while the mathematician goes round? Through and beyond lines, algebraic symbols, signs and formulae, it is the artist's trade.' By Jasper Salwey, ©1921 '.Many people now concede the claim that it is actually possible to suggest 'a sense of color ' in a 'black and white' drawing, and it is hoped that the notes in Chapter IX may at least convey to the student those principles upon which the claim is based.' (7.9 MB) by Allen W.

Seaby, ©1921 '.it becomes necessary to insist upon the importance of draughtsmanship in the classical sense, as understood by Holbein, Velasquez, Ingres, Menzel, and Degas. This technical power or faculty, call it what we will, is not a conjuring trick, a mere sleight-of-hand to be learned as a series of 'tips,' but must be acquired, if at all, by severe training.' (6.8 MB) By William Walker, ©1879 '.As the eye is the most important gateway of knowledge, so far as the physical world is concerned, it ought to receive great culture, even with only a utilitarian motive, for the time is rapidly approaching when drawing will demand its right place.'

By Edward C Clifford, ©1921 'Here it is purposed to deal with trees only, and it should at once be pointed out that trees have an anatomy, individual and class characteristics, limits to their areas of growth and to their endurance of certain conditions and changes of appearance under the influences of season, situation, and climate. As the figure painter studies the nude that he may be able to paint the costumed figure, as he must know the figure within the clothes, so should the landscape painter study the naked tree in winter, that he may be able to paint it rightly in its summer dress of foliage.'

(7.4 M) or, The whole art of picture making reduced to the simplest principles By Frank Howard, ©1837 'The objects in a drawing may be accurately outlined, and shaded very correctly, very neatly and delicately finished, and yet it shall still be less pleasing than a slight sketch, having no pretension to accuracy of outline or detail, but which possesses the charm of Pictorial Effect.' By Harold Speed, Fourth Edition, ©1922 'Permit me in the first place to anticipate the disappointment of any student who opens this book with the idea of finding 'wrinkles' on how to draw faces, trees, clouds, or what not, short cuts to excellence in drawing, or any of the tricks so popular with the drawing masters of our grandmothers and still dearly loved by a large number of people. No good can come of such methods, for there are no short cuts to excellence.' By William Locock, ©1852 'Perspective is the science which teaches the art of representing objects on a plane surface, in such a manner as to present to the eye the same appearance which the objects themselves do, real or imaginary.' By Robert Pratt, ©1901 'Of what consequence, it may be asked, is it to an artist, this geometrical study of the subject, if he copy faithfully what he sees?

To this the reply may be given—quoting from Leslie's ' Handbook to Young Painters — 'that it is of the greatest consequence if it enables him to see better what he copies.' ' by Leslie William Miller, ©1892 'I CALL this little book 'The Essentials of Perspective,' because it seems to me that it contains as much information about the science of which it treats as the artist or the draughtsman ever has occasion to make use of, except under the most unusual conditions. I do not claim to have discovered any new thing, either in the principles or possible applications of perspective science. But it has occurred to me, as I know it has occurred to many others with a similar experience in teaching drawing, that a book on perspective, which should be exhaustive enough to redeem the study from the contempt with which it is too often treated by artists — an estimate which is, to a considerable extent, justified by such presentations of it as are usually found in the 'hand-books' and 'text-books ' in common use—and yet free, as far as possible, from the technical difficulties which the unscientific mind is pretty sure to encounter in the profounder treatises, might be of use.' By Victor Tyson Wilson, first edition ©1908 'In presenting a new treatise on an old theme, it seems necessary at the outset to give a brief history of its development, so that the reader may see more clearly its purpose. When the author began to teach the elements of freehand drawing to technical students, and found it necessary to deal with the art of drawing associated with the principles of linear perspective, he was impressed with the fact that there was an unnecessary and undesirable antagonism between the two, which, when speaking of the one, required the other to be ignored, at the same time both had to be carried along side by side; the time seemed very long before the student might be permitted to view the mystery of why the one was dependent upon the other.' Rendering with pen and brush, elements of water-color rendering, rendering in water color, drawing from nature, the American Vignola by unknown author, Copyright, 1903 by International Text-book Company, Published 1921 'It is necessary to understand and keep before the mind the fundamental principles of composition; i.e., to notice and remember what arrangements are the most agreeable.

These principles apply not only to pictorial representation, but to every kind of design. In general, composition involves three separate considerations – balance, rhythm, and harmony; and if work be executed in accordance with these principles it will result in a unity of effect that is satisfactory and restful, because all parts of the picture are consistently related to one another.

' Four Talks Given Before The Art Institute of Chicago With Illustrations by the Author by Francis Hopkinson Smith, 1914 'After the salient features of a landscape have been analyzed and recorded in color, the more subtle qualities are to be detected and expressed. The most important of these is the time of day. To an outdoor painter—an expert examining the work of another expert—the hour-hand is written over every square inch of the canvas. He knows from the angle of the shadows just how high the sun was in the heavens, and he knows, too, from the local color of the shadows whether it is a silvery light of the morning, the glare of noontime, or the deepening golden glow of the afternoon.' Artist Technical Reference and Anatomy - Free Art eBooks : Being a guide to the knowledge of the human body by dissection By GEORGE VINER ELLIS, ©1879 'When the ear has been drawn down by hooks, the position of the upper muscle will be indicated by a slight prominence between it and the head; and the muscular fibres may be laid bare by means of the two following incisions, made no deeper than the skin: One is to be carried upwards on the side of the head.' By Henry Gray, ©1918 'Illustrations have been added wherever important points could be made more clear, and throughout the work colored pictures have been even more extensively used than heretofore.'

©2014 All Rights Reserved. ' Sign & Digital Graphics is the most widely read industry trade publication covering the business of visual communications and offering a broad range of in-depth reporting for sign industry and wide-format digital graphics professionals. This distinguished and unique monthly trade publication provides comprehensive professional coverage on all aspects of commercial signage, commercial graphics production, electric LED-based signage and letter systems, architectural signage, electronic digital displays, vehicle wraps and much more.' Trade Magazine, requires business info for subscription. All images shown are properties owned by their respective owners. Copyright © 2003 - 2014 Hills Creative Arts Pte Ltd.

All rights reserved. A daily-updated news and editorial site focused on Creativity and Innovation Named by Forbes as 'Top Five Sites for Keeping up With Creativity and Design', DesignTAXI is a highly-influential source with our content picked up by leading media such as The New York Times, CNN, Wall Street Journal, Huffington Post and LinkedIn Today. TIME Magazine calls us one of the 'Best Twitter Feeds of 2012'. The typical TAXI reader is tech-savvy, creative, curious and excited about new ideas. More than 400,000 followers across our network's social media streams. Started since 2003. Other Design TAXI network sites, of interest to Artists and Graphic Designers: © 2014 The Creative Bazaar Pte Ltd.

All artworks are copyright of its respective owners. An online marketplace to buy and sell creative objects Sellers can sell and ship most types of creative objects created by themselves, directly to buyers Free for basic accounts. All artworks are copyright of its respective owners. Copyright © 2014 Hills Creative Arts Pte Ltd.

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Commissions vary from 3.5% - 30%. 0 by various Authors, Copyright ©1977-2005 by American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, All rights reserved 'A large number of canvas samples from paintings by 116 French artists are analyzed for fiber type and weight. Results are categorized chronologically as well as by artist, and it may be seen that prior to the end of the 18th century, hemp canvases were most common.'

From, Katrina Vanderlip Carbonnel, Vol.20 No.01, ©1980 'THE PRESENT NOTE gives the results of the analysis of nineteen Winsor and Newton moist watercolors (in pans) which once belonged to Winslow Homer. The identification of many of these were previously reported by Craigen Weston, and this note represents a completion of her research. The colors are in a box which the artist signed (Figure 1).' Farrell, Vol.19 No.02, ©1980 The commissioned special pull-out sections for, Copyright ©1998-2008 by American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, All rights reserved '.museum workers are more likely to be exposed to low-level doses of heavy metals over an extended period of time, resulting in chronic health problems. Heavy metal exposure in the environment along with that from museum collections and buildings is of particular concern to museum professionals involved in emergency and disaster rescue and recovery efforts. ' from A Special Insert: Heavy Metals, their Salts, and other Compounds, A Quick Reference Guide from AIC and the Health &Safety Committee, By Cheryl Podsiki, AIC news, November 2008.

Coverage: 1886 (Vol. 1), Sample articles from Nov., 1886: (pp. 31-34) by Frank T. Robinson (pp. 39-40) by Lyman H. 42-43) by Alfred Trumble (pp.

56-59), Nov., 1886, pp. 31-60, V-X, Oct., 1886, pp.

I-II, 1-30, III-IX Coverage: 1916 (Vol. 7), Coverage 1909-1915 (Vols. 1-7) Sample Articles: (p. 435-441) (pp. 338-339) (pp.

340-341) Coverage: 1870-1891 (Vols. 1-24) Note: The content for 1892-1903 will be released as soon as the issues become available to JSTOR Sample Articles: by M. Odenheimer-Fowler, Vol.

6 (May, 1883), p. 2 (Jan., 1881), pp. 2 (Jul., 1885), p.

4 (Mar., 1890), pp. 79-81: 1919-1920 1893-1894 1870-1871 1884-1885 1916-1918 1899-1901 1897-1907 1899-1907 1891-1892 1856-1861 1855-1861 1901-1919 1853-1854 1879 1852-1908 1867-1868 1866-1867 by Various Authors, Published Manchester: Davis Bros., (1891-1905) by Various Authors, Published Oak Park, Ill., etc., Trade Review Co., etc., (1891-19215) ).

A with the case opened. Such turbines produce most of the electricity used today. Electricity consumption and living standards are highly correlated. Electrification is believed to be the most important engineering achievement of the 20th century. Technology ('science of craft', from τέχνη, techne, 'art, skill, cunning of hand'; and -λογία, ) is the collection of,,, and used in the production of or or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as. Technology can be the of techniques, processes, and the like, or it can be embedded in to allow for operation without detailed knowledge of their workings.

The simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic. The discovery of and the later increased the available sources of food, and the invention of the helped humans to travel in and control their environment. Developments in historic times, including the, the, and the, have lessened physical barriers to and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. The steady progress of has brought of ever-increasing destructive power, from to. Technology has many effects. It has helped develop more advanced (including today's ) and has allowed the rise of a. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earth's.

Innovations have always influenced the of a society and raised new questions of the. Examples include the rise of the notion of in terms of human, and the challenges of.

Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the or worsens it.,, and similar movements criticize the pervasiveness of technology, arguing that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as and view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the. The spread of paper and printing to the West, as in this, helped and communicate their ideas easily, leading to the; an example of technology as cultural force. The use of the term 'technology' has changed significantly over the last 200 years.

Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, and it was used either to refer to the description or study of the or to allude to technical education, as in the (chartered in 1861). The term 'technology' rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the. The term's meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with, translated ideas from the German concept of into 'technology.' In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which usually translates both terms as 'technology.' By the 1930s, 'technology' referred not only to the study of the but to the industrial arts themselves. In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that 'technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them.' Bain's definition remains common among scholars today, especially social scientists.

Scientists and engineers usually prefer to define technology as, rather than as the things that people make and use. More recently, scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of 'technique' to extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in 's work on ( techniques de soi). Dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. The offers a definition of the term: 'the use of science in industry, engineering, etc., to invent useful things or to solve problems' and 'a machine, piece of equipment, method, etc., that is created by technology.' , in her 1989 'Real World of Technology' lecture, gave another definition of the concept; it is 'practice, the way we do things around here.' The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to or just, rather than technology as a whole., in, defines technology in two ways: as 'the pursuit of life by means other than life,' and as 'organized inorganic matter.' Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to achieve some value.

In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems. It is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a or wooden, or more complex machines, such as a. Tools and machines need not be material; virtual technology, such as and, fall under this definition of technology. Defines technology in a similarly broad way as 'a means to fulfill a human purpose.' The word 'technology' can also be used to refer to a collection of techniques.

In this context, it is the current state of humanity's knowledge of how to combine resources to produce desired products, to solve problems, fulfill needs, or satisfy wants; it includes technical methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools and raw materials. When combined with another term, such as 'medical technology' or 'space technology,' it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and tools. ' technology' refers to the available to humanity in any field. The invention of integrated circuits and the (here, an chip from 1971) led to the modern. Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes culture. Additionally, technology is the application of math, science, and the arts for the benefit of life as it is known.

A modern example is the rise of technology, which has lessened barriers to human interaction and as a result has helped spawn new subcultures; the rise of has at its basis the development of the and the. Not all technology enhances culture in a creative way; technology can also help facilitate and war via tools such as guns. As a cultural activity, technology predates both and, each of which formalize some aspects of technological endeavor.

Conducting an experiment with combustion generated by amplified sun light The distinction between science, engineering, and technology is not always clear. Is systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation and experimentation. Technologies are not usually exclusively products of science, because they have to satisfy requirements such as,, and.

[ ] Engineering is the process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science. The development of technology may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering,,, and knowledge, to achieve some practical result. Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering, although technology as a human activity precedes the two fields. For example, science might study the flow of in by using already-existing tools and knowledge. This new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools and machines such as,, and other forms of advanced technology.

Asus Eee Top Drivers Windows 7. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologists; the three fields are often considered as one for the purposes of research and reference. The exact relations between science and technology in particular have been debated by scientists, historians, and policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied science. In the immediate wake of, for example, it was widely considered in the United States that technology was simply 'applied science' and that to fund basic science was to reap technological results in due time. An articulation of this philosophy could be found explicitly in 's treatise on postwar science policy, Science – The Endless Frontier: 'New products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature.

This essential new knowledge can be obtained only through basic scientific research.' In the late-1960s, however, this view came under direct attack, leading towards initiatives to fund science for specific tasks (initiatives resisted by the scientific community). The issue remains contentious, though most analysts resist the model that technology simply is a result of scientific research. Main article: The discovery and utilization of, a simple source with many profound uses, was a turning point in the technological evolution of humankind. The exact date of its discovery is not known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before 1 Ma; scholarly consensus indicates that had controlled fire by between 500 and 400 ka. Fire, fueled with and, allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten. Clothing and shelter Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era were and shelter; the adoption of both technologies cannot be dated exactly, but they were a key to humanity's progress.

As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380 ka, humans were constructing temporary wood huts. Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to out of Africa by 200 ka and into other continents such as. Neolithic through classical antiquity (10 ka – 300 CE). An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools Human's technological ascent began in earnest in what is known as the Period ('New Stone Age'). The invention of polished was a major advance that allowed on a large scale to create farms. This use of polished stone axes increased greatly in the Neolithic, but were originally used in the preceding in some areas such as.

Fed larger populations, and the transition to allowed simultaneously raising more children, as infants no longer needed to be carried, as ones must. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could to the economy. With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in. What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as, and the first civilizations, such as, is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly social structures and specialized labor, of trade and war amongst adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges such as, are all thought to have played a role. Metal tools Continuing improvements led to the and and provided, for the first time, the ability to and of,,, and – native metals found in relatively pure form in nature. The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of times (about 10 ka). Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires.

Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of such as and (about 4000 BCE). The first uses of iron alloys such as dates to around 1800 BCE.

Energy and transport. Main article: Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to the 8th millennium BCE. From prehistoric times, Egyptians probably used the power of the annual to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and 'catch' basins. The ancient in used a complex system of canals and levees to divert water from the and rivers for irrigation.

According to archaeologists, the was invented around 4000 BCE probably independently and nearly simultaneously in Mesopotamia (in present-day ), the Northern Caucasus () and Central Europe. Estimates on when this may have occurred range from 5500 to 3000 BCE with most experts putting it closer to 4000 BCE.

The oldest artifacts with drawings depicting wheeled carts date from about 3500 BCE; however, the wheel may have been in use for millennia before these drawings were made. More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia. The invention of the wheel revolutionized trade and war. It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads. The ancient Sumerians used the and may have invented it. A stone pottery wheel found in the city-state of dates to around 3429 BCE, and even older fragments of wheel-thrown pottery have been found in the same area.

Fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early of pottery, but it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources. The first two-wheeled carts were derived from and were first used in Mesopotamia and in around 3000 BCE. The oldest known constructed roadways are the stone-paved streets of the city-state of Ur, dating to circa 4000 BCE and timber roads leading through the swamps of, dating to around the same time period. The first long-distance road, which came into use around 3500 BCE, spanned 1,500 miles from the to the, but was not paved and was only partially maintained. In around 2000 BCE, the on the Greek island of built a fifty-kilometer (thirty-mile) road leading from the palace of on the south side of the island, through the mountains, to the palace of on the north side of the island. Unlike the earlier road, the Minoan road was completely paved.

Photograph of the in France, one of the most famous Ancient Minoan private homes had. A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos. Several Minoan private homes also had, which could be flushed by pouring water down the drain. The ancient Romans had many public flush toilets, which emptied into an extensive. The primary sewer in Rome was the; construction began on it in the sixth century BCE and it is still in use today.

The ancient Romans also had a complex system of, which were used to transport water across long distances. The first was built in 312 BCE. The eleventh and final ancient Roman aqueduct was built in 226 CE.

Put together, the Roman aqueducts extended over 450 kilometers, but less than seventy kilometers of this was above ground and supported by arches. Medieval and modern history (300 CE – present). Main articles:,,,,, and Innovations continued through the with innovations such as, the and in the first few hundred years after the fall of the. Saw the use of (such as the, the, and the ) being combined to form more complicated tools, such as the, and.

The brought forth many of these innovations, including the (which facilitated the greater communication of knowledge), and technology became increasingly associated with, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement. The advancements in technology in this era allowed a more steady supply of food, followed by the wider availability of consumer goods. The revolutionized personal transportation. Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the was a period of great technological discovery, particularly in the areas of,,,, and, driven by the discovery of. Technology took another step in a with the harnessing of to create such innovations as the,, and countless others.

Scientific advancement and the discovery of new concepts later allowed for and advancements in,,, and. The rise in technology has led to and broad whose inhabitants rely on to transport them and their food supply. Communication was also greatly improved with the invention of the,, and. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a revolution in transportation with the invention of the and.

And flying over during the in 1991. The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In, the discovery of has led to both and. Were also invented and later utilizing and.

Subsequently led to the creation of the, which ushered in the current. Humans have also been able to with (later used for ) and in manned missions going all the way to the moon. In medicine, this era brought innovations such as and later along with new and treatments. Complex and techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain these new technologies, and entire have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools.

Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education – their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific training. Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have been created to support them, including,, and, and other fields have been made more complex, such as, and. Philosophy Technicism Generally, technicism is the belief in the utility of technology for improving human societies. Taken to an extreme, technicism 'reflects a fundamental attitude which seeks to control reality, to resolve all problems with the use of scientific-technological methods and tools.' In other words, human beings will someday be able to master all problems and possibly even control the future using technology.

Some, such as, connect these ideas to the abdication of religion as a higher. See also: Optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of ideologies such as and, which view as generally having beneficial effects for the society and the human condition.

In these ideologies, technological development is morally good. Transhumanists generally believe that the point of technology is to overcome barriers, and that what we commonly refer to as the is just another barrier to be surpassed. Singularitarians believe in some sort of '; that the rate of technological progress accelerates as we obtain more technology, and that this will culminate in a ' after is invented in which progress is nearly infinite; hence the term. Estimates for the date of this Singularity vary, but prominent futurist estimates the Singularity will occur in 2045.

Kurzweil is also known for his history of the universe in six epochs: (1) the physical/chemical epoch, (2) the life epoch, (3) the human/brain epoch, (4) the technology epoch, (5) the artificial intelligence epoch, and (6) the universal colonization epoch. Going from one epoch to the next is a Singularity in its own right, and a period of speeding up precedes it. Each epoch takes a shorter time, which means the whole history of the universe is one giant Singularity event.

Some critics see these ideologies as examples of and and fear the notion of and which they support. Some have described as a techno-optimist. Skepticism and critics.

Smashing a power loom in 1812 On the somewhat skeptical side are certain philosophers like and, who believe that technological societies are inherently flawed. They suggest that the inevitable result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the cost of freedom and psychological health. Many, such as the and prominent philosopher, hold serious, although not entirely, deterministic reservations about technology (see ' ). According to Heidegger scholars and Charles Spinosa, 'Heidegger does not oppose technology. He hopes to reveal the essence of technology in a way that 'in no way confines us to a stultified compulsion to push on blindly with technology or, what comes to the same thing, to rebel helplessly against it.' Indeed, he promises that 'when we once open ourselves expressly to the essence of technology, we find ourselves unexpectedly taken into a freeing claim.' What this entails is a more complex relationship to technology than either techno-optimists or techno-pessimists tend to allow.'

Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics such as 's, 's, and 's. In, Faust selling his soul to the devil in return for power over the physical world is also often interpreted as a metaphor for the adoption of industrial technology.

More recently, modern works of science fiction such as those by and and films such as and project highly ambivalent or cautionary attitudes toward technology's impact on human society and identity. The late cultural critic distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called 'technopolies,' societies that are dominated by the ideology of technological and scientific progress to the exclusion or harm of other cultural practices, values and world-views.

Has written about technology's impact on practices of and democratic culture, suggesting that technology can be construed as (1) an object of political debate, (2) a means or medium of discussion, and (3) a setting for democratic deliberation and citizenship. As a setting for democratic culture, Barney suggests that technology tends to make questions, including the question of what a good life consists in, nearly impossible, because they already give an answer to the question: a good life is one that includes the use of more and more technology. Has also about the dangers of new technology, such as,,, and.

He warns that these technologies introduce unprecedented new challenges to human beings, including the possibility of the permanent alteration of our biological nature. These concerns are shared by other philosophers, scientists and public intellectuals who have written about similar issues (e.g.,,, and ). Another prominent critic of technology is, who has published books such as On the Internet and What Computers Still Can't Do. A more infamous anti-technological treatise is, written by the Unabomber and printed in several major newspapers (and later books) as part of an effort to end his bombing campaign of the techno-industrial infrastructure. Appropriate technology. See also: and The notion of was developed in the 20th century by thinkers such as and to describe situations where it was not desirable to use very new technologies or those that required access to some centralized or parts or skills imported from elsewhere. The movement emerged in part due to this concern.

Optimism and skepticism in the 21st century This section mainly focuses on American concerns even if it can reasonably be generalized to other Western countries. The inadequate quantity and quality of American jobs is one of the most fundamental economic challenges we face.

[.] What's the linkage between technology and this fundamental problem? — Bernstein, Jared, 'It’s Not a Skills Gap That’s Holding Wages Down: It’s the Weak Economy, Among Other Things,' in, October 2014 In his article,, a Senior Fellow at the, questions the widespread idea that, and more broadly, technological advances, have mainly contributed to this growing problem. His thesis appears to be a third way between optimism and skepticism. Essentially, he stands for a neutral approach of the linkage between technology and American issues concerning and declining wages. He uses two main arguments to defend his point. First, because of recent technological advances, an increasing number of workers are losing their jobs.

Yet, scientific evidence fails to clearly demonstrate that technology has displaced so many workers that it has created more problems than it has solved. Indeed, threatens repetitive jobs but higher-end jobs are still necessary because they complement technology and manual jobs that 'requires flexibility judgment and common sense' remain hard to replace with. Second, studies have not shown clear links between recent technology advances and the wage trends of the last decades.

Therefore, according to Bernstein, instead of focusing on technology and its hypothetical influences on current American increasing unemployment and declining wages, one needs to worry more about 'bad policy that fails to offset the imbalances in demand, trade, income and opportunity.' For people who use both the Internet and mobile devices in excessive quantities it is likely for them to experience and over exhaustion as a result of disruptions in their sleeping patterns. Continuous studies have shown that increased and weight gain are associated with people who spend long hours online and not exercising frequently.

Heavy Internet use is also displayed in the school lower grades of those who use it in excessive amounts. It has also been noted that the use of mobile phones whilst driving has increased the occurrence of road accidents — particularly amongst teen drivers. Statistically, teens reportedly have fourfold the amount of road traffic incidents as those who are 20 years or older, and a very high percentage of adolescents write (81%) and read (92%) texts while driving. In this context, mass media and technology have a negative impact on people, on both their mental and physical health. Complex technological systems stated that because technology has been considered as a key way to solve problems, we need to be aware of its complex and varied characters to use it more efficiently.

What is the difference between a or a and cooking machines such as an or a? Can we consider all of them, only a part of them, or none of them as technologies? Technology is often considered too narrowly; according to Hughes, 'Technology is a creative process involving human ingenuity'. This definition's emphasis on creativity avoids unbounded definitions that may mistakenly include cooking “technologies,' but it also highlights the prominent role of humans and therefore their responsibilities for the use of complex technological systems. Yet, because technology is everywhere and has dramatically changed landscapes and societies, Hughes argues that,, and have often believed that they can use technology to shape the world as they want.

They have often supposed that technology is easily controllable and this assumption has to be thoroughly questioned. For instance, particularly challenges two concepts: “Internet-centrism” and “solutionism.' Internet-centrism refers to the idea that our society is convinced that the Internet is one of the most stable and coherent forces.

Solutionism is the ideology that every social issue can be solved thanks to technology and especially thanks to the internet. In fact, technology intrinsically contains uncertainties and limitations.

According to 's review of Morozov's theory, to ignore it will lead to “unexpected consequences that could eventually cause more damage than the problems they seek to address.' Cohen and Gwen Ottinger also discussed the multivalent effects of technology. Therefore, recognition of the limitations of technology, and more broadly, scientific knowledge, is needed – especially in cases dealing with and health issues. Ottinger continues this reasoning and argues that the ongoing recognition of the limitations of scientific knowledge goes hand in hand with scientists and engineers’ new comprehension of their role.

Such an approach of technology and science '[require] technical professionals to conceive of their roles in the process differently. [They have to consider themselves as] collaborators in research and problem solving rather than simply providers of information and technical solutions.' Competitiveness Technology is properly defined as any application of science to accomplish a function. The science can be leading edge or well established and the function can have high visibility or be significantly more mundane, but it is all technology, and its exploitation is the foundation of all competitive advantage. Technology-based planning is what was used to build the US industrial giants before WWII (e.g.,,, ) and it is what was used to transform the US into a.

It was not economic-based planning. Other animal species. This adult uses a branch as a to gauge the water's depth, an example of technology usage by non-human primates. The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal species apart from humans. These include primates such as, some communities, and. Considering a more generic perspective of technology as ethology of active environmental conditioning and control, we can also refer to animal examples such as beavers and their dams, or bees and their honeycombs.

The ability to make and use tools was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus. However, the discovery of tool construction among chimpanzees and related primates has discarded the notion of the use of technology as unique to humans. For example, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees utilising tools for foraging: some of the tools used include leaf sponges, termite fishing probes, and. Also use stone hammers and anvils for cracking nuts, as do of, Brazil. Future technology. Find more about Technologyat Wikipedia's • from Wiktionary • from Wikimedia Commons • from Wikinews • from Wikiquote • from Wikisource • from Wikibooks • from Wikiversity • Ambrose, Stanley H.

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